Design and Control of a Variable Stiffness Actuator for Safe and Fast Physical Human/Robot Interaction

By Giovanni Tonietti, R. Schiavi, Antonio Bicchi. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2005

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Working Together: A Review on Safe Human-Robot Collaboration in Industrial Environments (2017, background): “[30], [49]), can be considered equivalent to the concept of compliant actuator [50], [51].”
A new variable stiffness design: Matching requirements of the next robot generation (2008, background): “The approach in [7] aims at a reduction of these effects by motor cross-coupling.”
Collision Detection and Safe Reaction with the DLR-III Lightweight Manipulator Arm (2006, background): “Also, variable stiffness actuation can be used, stiffening the joints during low-velocity transients and relaxing them at high-velocity regimes [10], in such a way that tracking performance during free motion is not compromised by the introduced compliance.”
Compliant actuator designs (2009, background): “The complete formula for the torque can be found in [28].”
Symbiotic human-robot collaborative assembly (2019, background): “Based on variable stiffness actuation (VSA) motors, Tonietti et al. [231] proposed to improve the actuators control in real-time.”