Early Literacy Skills in African–American Children: Research Considerations

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Examining Teacher–Child Relationships and Achievement as Part of an Ecological Model of Development (2007, background): “Standardized assessments test knowledge that is central to European American, but not African American and Latino American, culture (Garcia Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995; Washington, 2001).”
A Comparison of Two Direct Instruction Reading Programs for Urban Middle School Students (2005, background): “These factors include teacher classroom behavior management and expectations, class size, high student mobility rates, level of parents’ education, and student off-task behavior (Arroyo & Rhoad, 1999; Washington, 2001).”