All other things being equal: acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy.

By Z. Chen, David Klahr. 1999

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Direct Instruction of Metacognition Benefits Adolescent Science Learning, Transfer, and Motivation: An In Vivo Study. (2015, background): “These materials are designed to teach students how to create valid experiments, which is critical for reasoning about variables and confounds when designing experiments and interpreting results (Chen & Klahr, 1999).”
Preschool children learn about causal structure from conditional interventions. (2007, background): “Considerable research suggests that both children and adults are poor at designing informative experiments (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Inhelder & Piaget, 1958; Kuhn, 1989; Kuhn, Amsel & O'Laughlin, 1988; Masnick & Klahr, 2003).”
Contribution of Meta‐strategic Knowledge to Scientific Inquiry Learning (2009, background): “…findings consistently show that children encounter considerable difficulties in scientific thinking and accordantly in inquiry-based learning (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Chinn & Brewer, 1993; De Jong & Van Joolingen, 1998; Dunbar, 1993; Germann, Aram, Odom, & Burke, 1996; Klahr & Dunbar, 1988;…”
The Knowledge-Learning-Instruction Framework: Bridging the Science-Practice Chasm to Enhance Robust Student Learning (2012, background): “Chen and Klahr (1999) found that when elementary school students were provided with instruction that drew their attention to the specific features that distinguish confounded and unconfounded experiments, there were significantly greater gains in children's ability to design good experiments when…”
Innovations in STEM education: the Go-Lab federation of online labs (2014, background): “The EDT helps students to design unconfounded experiments and focuses especially on assisting students with using the “ Control of Variables Strategy ” (CVS, see Chen and Klahr, 1999).”
The Development of Cognitive Skills To Support Inquiry Learning (2000, background): “A number of studies over the years have undertaken teaching the use of the controlled comparison procedure in brief training sessions (Case, 1974; Chen & Klahr, 1999) with some degree of success, but such interventions are unlikely to effect change in underlying mental models of causality.”
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction (2004, methodology): “Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children’s ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
‘Grasp of Practice’ as a Reasoning Resource for Inquiry and Nature of Science Understanding (2008, background): “As a particularly visible example, consider the line of research on the teaching and learning of experimentation in terms of the Control of Variables Strategy by Klahr and colleagues (Chen and Klahr 1999; Klahr et al. 2001; Klahr & Nigam 2004).”
Hands on What? The Relative Effectiveness of Physical versus Virtual Materials in an Engineering Design Project by Middle School Children (2007, methodology): “For example , Cells A and B were compared in a series of investigations by Klahr and colleagues ( Chen & Klahr , 1999 ; Klahr & Nigam , 2004 ; Toth , Klahr , & Chen , 2000 ) using physical hands - on materials ( physical ramps , springs , and sinking objects ) .”
Teaching the control-of-variables strategy: A meta-analysis (2016, methodology): “Research questions include, for example, whether particular types of instruction are more effective (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr, 2005; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, 2005b; Kuhn & Dean, 2005), and whether hands-on activities and virtual training tasks are equally effective in teaching…”
Examining the Relationship Between Students’ Understanding of the Nature of Models and Conceptual Learning in Biology, Physics, and Chemistry (2011, background): “Other studies have investigated the influence of science learning on views of science (Carey & Smith, 1993 ; Chen & Klahr, 1999 ); however, results here were not consistently positive (Abd‐El‐Khalick & Lederman, 2000 ; Burbules & Linn, 1991 ).”