The Four Strands

By Paul Nation. 2007

515 citations recorded by the source corpus.

The activities in a language course can be classified into the four strands of meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning and fluency development. In a well designed course there should be an even balance of these strands with roughly equal amounts of time given to each strand. The research evidence for the strands draws on the input hypothesis and learning from extensive reading, the output hypothesis, research on form-focused instruction, and the development of speaking and reading fluency. The paper concludes with 10 principles based largely on the four strands. The strands framework and the principles provide a basis for managing innovation in language courses.

Subfields: Developmental and Educational Psychology, Language and Linguistics, Literature and Literary Theory

View Paper: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/3f2756daf68ef11b69b98e002655591a144e9ccf

How researchers see this paper

The researchers whose trusted networks rank it highest, strongest advocate first. Every researcher gets a different order.

In Developmental and Educational Psychology

1. N. Schmitt
2. Stuart Webb
3. A. Chang
4. Irina Elgort
5. I. Nation
6. W. Grabe
7. F. Boers
8. Farahnaz Faez

In Language and Linguistics

1. A. Chang
2. Irina Elgort
3. Stuart Webb
4. W. Grabe
5. I. Nation
6. N. Schmitt
7. F. Boers
8. Farahnaz Faez

In Literature and Literary Theory

1. I. Nation
2. A. Chang
3. F. Boers
4. Stuart Webb
5. W. Grabe
6. Irina Elgort
7. Paul Nation
8. Kilryoung Lee

Citations in the corpus

• The effect of a timed reading activity on EFL learners: Speed, comprehension, and perceptions (2010, background): “Millett (2008) suggests that reading fluency practice should be done frequently or at least three times a week (Nation, 2005), otherwise the speed increase will not be significant.”
• Cognitive Linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary: Assessment and integration (2011, background): “Language-focused learning is one of four strands that Nation (2007) argues should be present in roughly equal amounts in a general proficiency programme.”
• INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING THROUGH LISTENING TO SONGS (2019, background): “Fourth, for optimum learning, 95% of the vocabulary items need to be within the learner’s previous knowledge (Nation, 2007).”
• Fluency in reading—Thirty-five years later (2010, background): “…series of publications, Nation has addressed the importance of reading fluency, Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1) extensive reading, and reading comprehension (see Nation 1979a, 1979b, 1984, 1991, 1996, 1997a, 1997b, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2009; see Chung & Nation, 2006; Wodinsky & Nation, 1988).”
• How much input do you need to learn the most frequent 9,000 words? (2014, background): “Reading in a Foreign Language 26(2) learning program contains both message-focused opportunities for learning as well as an appropriate amount of deliberate vocabulary learning (Nation, 2007).”
• Deliberate Learning and Vocabulary Acquisition in a Second Language (2011, background): “More recently, however, it has been argued that naturalistic usage-based learning is insufficient to acquire second-language (L2) vocabulary (Cobb & Horst, 2004; Ellis, 2008; Laufer, 2005) and needs to be supplemented by deliberate formfocused learning (Elgort & Nation, 2010; Hulstijn, 2003; Nation,”
• Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading (2015, background): “…through comprehensible listening and reading input, (b) learning through pushed spoken and written output, (c) deliberate language-focused learning, and (d) learning through fluency development in each of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing (Nation, 2007; Nation, 2013a).”
• Research into practice: Vocabulary (2011, methodology): “About one quarter of the time in a well planned program should involve deliberate learning, and of this, learning using word cards should occupy about a third or a quarter (Nation 2007).”
• Affective factors, virtual intercultural experiences, and L2 willingness to communicate in in-class, out-of-class, and digital settings (2019, background): “a freer speaking practice with an audience), and 4/3/2 fluency activity (e.g. speaking to three different peers about a same topic for four, three, and two minutes, respectively; Nation, 2007).”