Disproportionate Representation of Males in Special Education Services: Biology, Behavior, or Bias?.

By M. Wehmeyer, M. Schwartz. 2001

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Gender Differences in Early Literacy: Analysis of Kindergarten through Fifth-Grade Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Probes (2010, unknown): “…found clear evidence of male vulnerability with male-to-female ratios ranging from 2.04 to 6.78 across students 7–10 years old (Berger, Yule, & Rutter, 1975; Coutinho & Oswald, 2005; Flannery, Liederman, Daly, & Schultz, 2000; Lovell, Shapton, & Warren, 1964; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 2001).”
State Variation in Gender Disproportionality in Special Education (2005, background): “…in special education have hypothesized bias in referral and identification policies or in teacher– student interactions (Callahan, 1994; Caseau, Luckasson, & Kroth, 1994; MacMillan, Gresham, Lopez, & Bocian, 1996; Oswald et al., 2003; Shin, Tindall, & Spira, 1987; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 2001b).”
Trends in the Special Education Identification Rates of Boys and Girls: A Call for Research and Change (2003, background): “Age at the time of initial eligibility was not significantly different (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 2001a).”