Are motherhood penalties and fatherhood bonuses warranted? Comparing pro-work behaviors and conditions of mothers, fathers, and non-parents

By J. Kmec. 2011

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“Family-Friendly” Jobs and Motherhood Pay Penalties: The Impact of Flexible Work Arrangements Across the Educational Spectrum (2019, background): “Individual-level perspectives focus on underlying differences between women who become parents and those who do not, such as differences in career ambition (Lundberg & Rose, 2000, 2002) or work effort in the face of caregiving responsibilities (Becker, 1993; Budig & England, 2001; Kmec, 2011).”
A Reconsideration of the Fatherhood Premium (2013, background): “In cross-sectional data, Kmec (2011) found little evidence that fathers report greater pro-work behavior than do childless men, but fathers were more likely than childless men to report that providing for what is needed at home makes them work harder at their job.”
Fathers and the Flexibility Stigma (2013, unknown): “Refuting ubiquitous theoretical arguments linking women’s lower earnings to mothers’ work effort, however, Kmec (2011) reports that employed mothers are more focused on work and work more intensively than fathers (see also Bielby, 1992; Bielby & Bielby, 1988).”