Insulin and insulin-like growth factor expression and function deteriorate with progression of Alzheimer's disease: Link to brain reductions in acetylcholine

By E. Rivera, Alison H. Goldin, Noah Fulmer, Rosemarie Tavares, J. Wands, S. M. de la Monte. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2005

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Decoding Alzheimer's disease from perturbed cerebral glucose metabolism: implications for diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. (2013, positive): “These alterations are involved in the progression of AD according to Braak staging (Rivera et al., 2005).”
Trends in insulin resistance: insights into mechanisms and therapeutic strategy (2022, background): “For example, major abnormalities in AD brains include decreased mRNA and protein expression levels of insulin, insulin receptors, insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) and IGF1/2, in addition to reduced protein indicators of downstream insulin signaling activity (including phosphorylated AKT (pAKT) an”
Inflammation as a central mechanism in Alzheimer's disease (2018, background): “[255] Rivera EJ, Goldin A, Fulmer N, Tavares R, Wands JR, la Monte de SM.”
Demonstrated brain insulin resistance in Alzheimer's disease patients is associated with IGF-1 resistance, IRS-1 dysregulation, and cognitive decline. (2012, background): “A number of the findings at upstream levels of the pathway are consistent with insulin resistance as defined above, notably decreased basal activation of IRs (28); reduced insulin binding of the IR, even early in the disorder (27); increased serine phosphorylation (pS) of IRS-1 (29, 33, 37); and red”