Oral tolerance: immune mechanisms and the generation of Th3-type TGF-beta-secreting regulatory cells.

By Howard L. Weiner. Microbes and infection, 2001

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The immunomodulatory properties of probiotic microorganisms beyond their viability (ghost probiotics: proposal of paraprobiotic concept) (2011, background): “It has also been shown that TGF-b, secreted from DCs within PPs, induces oral tolerance through induction of Treg cells ( Weiner 2001a; Weiner 2001b) as already proposed for lactobacilli by Smits et al., who assessed the mechanism of Treg cell activation in human DCs using lactobacilli of different”
The Tim-3 ligand galectin-9 negatively regulates T helper type 1 immunity (2005, background): “Expression of galectin-9 in the intestinal mucosa and gut-associated lymphoid tissue may be responsible for the inhibition of T H 1 responses and the predominant expression of T H 2 and T H 3 responses in the gut-associated lymphoid tissu”
The PD-1 Pathway in Tolerance and Autoimmunity (2010, background): “While induction of Tregs and anergy or deletion of autoreactive T cells occurs in studies of oral tolerance in mice, results of humans studies are not as clear (187).”