Competences in education: A confusion of tongues

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Conceptions of Professional Competence (2014, background): “So, where White (1959) was emphasizing the importance of the motivation to learn and to perform, McClelland (1973) was stressing that assessment of learning needed to be more relevant.”
Graduate Employability and Competence Development in Higher Education—A Systematic Literature Review Using PRISMA (2020, neutral): “Thus, competence is a problematic concept [16].”
Boundary-Crossing Competence: Theoretical Considerations and Educational Design (2007, background): “Although the definitions of competence remain vague, there appear to be two general tendencies in the literature (Westera, 2001).”
Generation Z: Fitting Project Management Soft Skills Competencies—A Mixed-Method Approach (2020, background): “Westera [27] suggested two perspectives on competence: the theoretical, meaning that competence is as a cognitive structure that facilitates a specified behavior and the operational, which refers to skills and behaviors that represent the ability to produce successful behaviors in non-standardized s”