Understanding the Antecedents of the "School-to-Jail" Link: The Relationship Between Race and School Discipline

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School Suspensions and Adverse Experiences in Adulthood (2017, background): “…in punishment begins in pre-school (U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2014), and rates of misbehavior (i.e., differential involvement across racial groups) do not account for these racial discrepancies (Rocque & Paternoster, 2011; Skiba et al., 2014; Wolf, 2013).”
Prior problem behavior accounts for the racial gap in school suspensions (2014, background): “However, a few studies have shown that Asians are significantly underrepresented in suspension rates (Costenbader &Markson, 1994) and less likely to receive disciplinary action than all other groups, includingwhites (Rocque & Paternoster, 2011; Wallace et al., 2008).”
Estimating the Effect of State Zero Tolerance Laws on Exclusionary Discipline, Racial Discipline Gaps, and Student Behavior (2016, background): “This finding holds across grade levels (Raffaele Mendez, 2003; Rocque & Paternoster, 2011).”
School Order, Justice, and Education: Climate, Discipline Practices, and Dropping Out (2015, background): “…sociological, criminological, and legal studies (and to some degree in public discourse) that schools may be going too far in attempting to promote safety, unintentionally causing harm to students in the process (Kim, Losen, & Hewitt, 2010; Noguera, 2008; Rios, 2011; Roques & Paternoster, 2011).”