Acute renal failure: definitions, diagnosis, pathogenesis, and therapy.

By R. Schrier, Wei Wang, B. Poole, A. Mitra. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 2004

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Urinary IL-18 is an early predictive biomarker of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. (2006, background): “Animal studies have shown that although AKI due to ischemia can be prevented or treated by several interventions, these must be started very early after the kidney injury.(1,2) The failure of these interventions in human clinical trials has been attributed to the significant delays in the diagnosis ”
Biomarkers of acute kidney injury. (2008, background): “These include (a) alterations in renal perfusion resulting from loss of autoregulation and increased renal vasoconstriction, (b) tubular dysfunction and cell death by apoptosis and necrosis, (c) desquamation of viable and dead cells contributing to intratubular obstruction, (d ) metabolic alteration”
Update on mechanisms of ischemic acute kidney injury. (2006, background): “Possible mechanisms include (1) adhesion of platelets to the endothelium, with subsequent leukocyte adhesion, and (2) adhesion of platelets to neutrophils, with consequent aggregate formation and trapping in narrow peritubular capillaries (132).”