Stability, resilience, and phase shifts in rocky subtidal communities along the west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada

By J. Watson, J. Estes. 2011

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Global patterns of kelp forest change over the past half-century (2016, background): “, west coast of Vancouver Island, Southern California Bight) can be attributed to successful local management efforts, including the recovery of previously exploited sea urchin predators (58) and reductions in local pollution levels (59).”
Global regime shift dynamics of catastrophic sea urchin overgrazing (2015, background): “*local presence of invasive algae/ ephemeral algae and epiphytes restricting kelp re-growth [61] presence of functional urchin predators [9,34–36,38,70,71]”
Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems (2014, unknown): “…Canada, phase shifts from sea urchin (Stron gylocentrotus franciscanus) barrens to kelp forests (Nereocystic luetkeana) were documented following the reintroduction of sea otters in the late 1960s (Breen et al. 1982) and their subsequent range expansion in the 1980s and 1990s (Watson & Estes 2011).”