Distance determined by the angular declination below the horizon

By T. Ooi, Bing Wu, Zijiang J. He. Nature, 2001

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The perception of egocentric distances in virtual environments - A review (2013, background): “However, since in real environments pitch manipulation with prisms has been shown to have effects [e.g., Gardner and Mon-Williams 2001; Ooi et al. 2001], Kuhl et al. [2009] suggest several explanations for their negative ﬁnding and nevertheless recommend careful calibration of the pitch index.”
Perceiving distance accurately by a directional process of integrating ground information (2004, background): “Now that the target is represented as located on a surface with a slant error ( η ), whereas its angular declination ( α ) is correctly perceive”
Predator avoidance in fiddler crabs: 1. Escape decisions in relation to the risk of predation (2005, background): “In the context of burrow surveillance (Hemmi & Zeil 2003a, b), the crabs are able to judge the distance between a simulated crab intruder and their own burrow, because for objects on the ground, the elevation in the crab’s visual field provides a cue to distance (Collett & Harkness 1982; Zeil et al.”
Does the Quality of the Computer Graphics Matter when Judging Distances in Visually Immersive Environments? (2004, result): “The similarity between judged distances to targets on the floor in the three types of virtual displays is consistent with the hypothesis that the declination of visual angle to targets dominates distance egocentric perception (Ooi, Wu, and He 2001).”