Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic

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Sustainable harvesting of wild seaweed resources (2017, background): “For example, Nova Scotian and Norwegian kelp beds have undergone several cycles of over-grazing by sea urchins creating barren grounds that may take decades to recover (Sharp et al., 2006; Norderhaug & Christie, 2009; Rinde et al., 2014).”
Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems (2014, unknown): “Ecosystem-specific reviews of alternations between kelp and barrens states also exist for Chile (Vásquez & Buschmann 1997), Maine, USA (Steneck et al. 2013), Nova Scotia (Scheibling et al. in press) and the Northeast Atlantic (Norderhaug & Christie 2009).”
Large-scale shift from sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) to ephemeral algae along the south and west coast of Norway (2012, background): “Our study has covered less than half of the Norwegian coast- line, and further north grazing by sea urchins has been described as a severe threat to the kelps (see Norderhaug & Christie 2009).”
Long-term and trans-life-cycle effects of exposure to ocean acidification in the green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (2013, background): “For example, on European coasts, grazing by the green sea urchin is central for structuring marine benthic communities leading to two stable states: abundant kelp forests with a high biodiversity and speciesdepleted sea urchin barrens (Norderhaug and Christie 2009).”