Pay or Pray? The Impact of Charitable Subsidies on Religious Attendance

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Who gives what and when? A scenario study of intentions to give time and money (2010, unknown): “The result is in line with the view that volunteering and giving are substitutes (Gruber, 2003).”
Sinning Saints and Saintly Sinners (2009, background): “Researchers looking at expenditure surveys have noted that when charitable giving becomes financially more valuable, because of changes in the tax code, churchgoers tend to give more and also attend church less (Gruber, 2004).”
A Literature Review of Empirical Studies of Philanthropy (2010, background): “Gruber (2004) finds that subsidies for religious contributions reduce church attendance.”
Controlling social desirability bias (2018, background): “Studies from the United States and Canada suggest that gender, ethnicity, age, marital status, the presence of children, education, and income may all be linked with attendance (Azzi & Ehrenberg, 1975; Clark, 2000; Eagle, 2011; Ehrenberg, 1977; Gruber, 2004; Long & Settle, 1977).”
Religion, spirituality, and altruism (2013, result): “Interesting findings, diverging from those of many other studies, have emerged from an economist’s study (Gruber, 2004).”
Who gives? A literature review of predictors of charitable giving. Part two: gender, marital status, income, and wealth (2012, background): “Gruber (2004) found that those who were not married gave higher amounts to religious and to a combination of religious and secular causes.”