Tokenism and job satisfaction for policewomen

By John T. Krimmel, P. Gormley. 2003

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Gender differences in the predictors of police stress (2006, methodology): “On each of the three dimensions (gender, race, Hispanic or not), each case was coded 1 if the person was in a department where 15 or less percent of the officers shared the particular demographic characteristic and 0 if the person was not in a 15 percent token group within the department ( Krimmel a”
The Search for Job Satisfaction: A Survey of Alabama Policing (2007, background): “Krimmel and Gormley (2003) found slightly lower satisfaction levels (but without statistical significance), but substantial and significant job-related depression.”
Multilevel Influences on Police Stress (2006, methodology): “Prior research has suggested that an individual holds token status when she or he is from a demographic group that includes 15% or less of the people in the organization ( Krimmel & Gormley, 2003, pp. 75-76 ).”