Bridging

By Herbert H. Clark. 1975

4/13/10 1 Crack Bridging. Lecture 2 Lecture 1 (http://imechanica.org/node/7948) introduced the crack bridging model. The model is also known as the cohesive-zone model, the Barenblatt model, or the Dugdale model. The model consists of two main ingredients: • The process of separation of the body is modeled by a traction-separation curve; • The process of deformation in the body is modeled by a field theory, such as the linear elastic theory. For a body of a given configuration and traction-separation curve, the model results in a boundary-value problem. A large number of such boundary-value problems have been solved. These problems can also be solved by commercial finite element software, such as ABAQUS. The limited time in this course will only allow us to describe a few examples. Lecture 1 focused on small-scale bridging, when the body contains a preexisting crack, and the size of the bridging zone is much smaller than the characteristic length of the body (e.g., the length of the crack and of the ligament). Under the small-scale bridging condition, the external boundary conditions of the body can be represented by a single parameter, the energy release rate. Consequently, the Griffith (1921) approach—as extended by Irwin, Orowan, Rivlin and Thomas in 1950s—can be used to determine the fracture energy. Once determined, the fracture energy of a material can be used to predict the failure of bodies of the same material but different configurations. This lecture is devoted to large-scale bridging. When the size of the bridging zone is comparable to, or even larger than, the characteristic length of a body, the external boundary conditions cannot be represented by the energy release rate alone. The Griffith approach fails. The crack-bridging model, however, applies under the large-scale bridging conditions. Within the crack-bridging model, the traction-separation curve characterizes the resistance of a material to fracture. The tractionseparation curve can be determined by a combination of computation and experimental measurement. Once determined, the traction-separation curve of a material can be used to predict failure of specimens of the same material but different configurations.

Subfields: Philosophy

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Citations in the corpus

Semantic Parsing on Freebase from Question-Answer Pairs (2013, background): “In a way, our bridging operation shares with bridging anaphora (Clark, 1975) the idea of establishing a novel relation between distinct parts of a sentence.”
Ordinal Common-sense Inference (2016, background): “3 E.g., many of the bridging inferences of Clark (1975) make use of common-sense knowledge, such as the following example of “Probable part”: I walked into the room.”
QED: A Framework and Dataset for Explanations in Question Answering (2020, background): “Bridging anaphora (Clark, 1975) are frequently encountered in the QA passages in our data, and in Wikipedia more broadly.”
Referential and lexical givenness: Semantic, prosodic and cognitive aspects (2012, methodology): “As examples, consider the underlined expressions in (6) and (7), adapted from Clark (1977) .”
How to marry a star: Probabilistic constraints for meaning in context (2020, background): “Going one step further, Clark (1975) discusses inferences that are “an integral part of the message”, including bridging references such as “I walked into the room.”
Presuppositions as nonassertions (2000, background): “However, Heim did propose a constraint to accommodation, one which would bring it closer to being a 'bridging' principle, in the sense of Clark (1977): "When a new file card is introduced under accommodation, it has to be linked by crossreferences to some already-present file card(s)" (Heim, 1982:…”
Indirect Speech Acts (2001, methodology): “Secondly, rhetorical relations evoke truth conditional effects on the content of the discourse that can’t be explained straightforwardly by other means (for a full discussion see Asher and Lascarides 1995, 1998a, b, c).”
How weak and how definite are Weak Definites (2012, background): “…on preceding expressions in more indirect ways - a phenomenon referred to in the literature as associative anaphora (Hawkins, 1978), bridging (Clark, 1975), or inferrables (Prince, 1981) -, and those types of cases, too, allow for co-varying interpretations (Schwarz, 2009): (5) Every…”
Answering Elementary Science Questions by Constructing Coherent Scenes using Background Knowledge (2015, background): “, 2014), bridging anaphora (Asher and Lascarides, 1998; Fan et al., 2005), and paragraph understanding (Zadrozny and Jensen, 1991; Harabagiu and Moldovan, 1997).”
Decontextualization: Making Sentences Stand-Alone (2021, background): “Decontextualization involves various linguistic phenomena, including coreference resolution, global scoping, and bridging anaphora (Clark, 1975).”
Articulated Definiteness without Articles (2018, background): “(Clark 1975:171) Clark’s distinction between association and characterization resembles the split between partwhole bridging and producer-product bridging proposed by Schwarz (2009:chap.”
Changing Ideas about Reference (2004, background): “New strategy leads to a class of Gricean implicatures called bridging inferences (Clark and Haviland, 1974, 1977; Clark, 1975, 1977; Haviland and Clark, 1974; see Matsui, 2000).”
Language as shaped by the brain. (2008, background): “…(e.g., between verbs and their arguments) at the first opportunity – a tendency that might not be syntax-specific, but, instead, an instance of a general cognitive tendency to attempt to resolve ambiguities rapidly in linguistic (Clark 1975) and perceptual input (Pomerantz & Kubovy 1986).”
Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension. (1994, background): “Researchers in psycholinguistics and discourse processing have proposed several taxonomies of inferences (Clark, 1977; Graesser & Kreuz, 1993; Harris & Monaco, 1978; Kintsch, 1993; Magliano & Graesser, 1991; Nicholas & Trabasso, 1981; Reiger, 1975; Singer, 1988), but a consensus has hardly emerged.”
Presupposition and Assertion in Dynamic Semantics (2001, background): “I leave to further work the job of describing in detail how my common-sense reasoning based approach to accommodation applies to such examples, and how it relates to other theories of bridging using common-sense reasoning such as Asher and Lascarides (1999).”
Cognitive load in simultaneous interpreting: Model meets data (2012, methodology): “Our prediction was based on the literature on language comprehension (Clark, 1975; Garrod, O’Brien, Morris, & Rayner, 1990; Harris & Monaco, 1978; Van den Broek, 1994), which describes the advantages of context in terms of facilitated activation of available concepts.”