Causality Between Corporate Social Performance and Financial Performance: Evidence from Canadian Firms

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Relationships between Corporate Social Responsibility and Financial Performance: What is the Causality? (2015, unknown): “Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield (1985) do not detect any significant relationship between corporate social responsibility and return on assets adjusted for the company’s risk level, nor do Makni, Francoeur, and Bellavance (2009).”
The relationship between corporate social performance and corporate financial performance and the role of innovation: evidence from German listed firms (2013, methodology): “In this paper, CFP is operationally defined as ROA, following the studies by Berman et al. (1999), Hull and Rothenberg (2008), Callan and Thomas (2009) and Makni et al. (2009), for example.”
A decade's debate on the nexus between corporate social and corporate financial performance: a critical review of empirical studies 2002–2011 (2014, methodology): “Capital structure is interpreted here as leverage or equity-debt ratio, which has been used to measure risk in some of the reviewed studies (Zheng, 2006; Choi and Jung, 2008; Makni et al., 2009; Choi et al., 2010; Busch and Hoffmann, 2011; Pae and Choi, 2011).”