Bubble-induced skin-friction drag reduction and the abrupt transition to air-layer drag reduction

By B. Elbing, Eric S. Winkel, Keary A. Lay, S. Ceccio, D. Dowling, Marcelo Perlin. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 2008

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Slip on Superhydrophobic Surfaces (2010, background): “…in turbulent ﬂows can be achieved through a number of different mechanisms, including the addition of polymers to the ﬂuid (Virk 1975) and the addition of bubbles (Sanders et al. 2006) or air layers (Elbing et al. 2008, Fukuda et al. 2000), compliant walls (Hahn et al. 2002), andriblets(Walsh1990).”
Friction Drag Reduction of External Flows with Bubble and Gas Injection (2010, methodology): “Merkle & Deutsch (1992) provide a review of the earliest work.”
Frictional drag reduction by bubble injection (2014, unknown): “For instance, Elbing et al. (2008) found an abrupt transition from dispersed bubble state to gas layer structure, which jumps up local drag reduction ratio from 25 to 80 %.”
On the energy economics of air lubrication drag reduction (2012, methodology): “Elbing et al. (2008) showed that a transition will take place in the topology of the air-liquid mixture given a sufficiently high flux of injected air. The first indication of bubble coalescence and persistent drag reduction of > 20% defines the beginning of the transitional air layer regime. In thi”