Time and space in general models of antipredator response: tests with wolves and elk

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Landscape of fear in Europe: wolves affect spatial patterns of ungulate browsing in Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland (2013, background): “Earlier American studies have found that deer reduce foraging and increase vigilance levels in the vicinity of objects that reduce habitat visibility or can serve as objects obstructing escape (Halofsky and Ripple 2008, Liley and Creel 2008).”
The paradox of risk allocation: a review and prospectus (2009, unknown): “As might be expected, several experimental studies have tested the risk allocation model directly (see Table 1) or indirectly (see Griffin et al. 2005; Baird & Baird 2006; Gude et al. 2006; Creel et al. 2008).”
Hunting for fear: innovating management of human–wildlife conflicts (2013, background): “This creates the paradox that prey might respond less to risk that is continuously high than to risk that is high but less frequent (Creel et al. 2008; Ferrari, Sih & Chivers 2009).”
Diel predator activity drives a dynamic landscape of fear (2017, unknown): “…that vary in predation risk (e.g., near versus far from forest cover) and increasing vigilance only when wolves are an immediate threat (Childress and Lung 2003, Lung and Childress 2007, Winnie and Creel 2007, Creel et al. 2008, Liley and Creel 2008, Gower et al. 2009, Middleton et al. 2013a).”