Multiple sclerosis: a two-stage disease

By L. Steinman. Nature Immunology, 2001

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Selective transfer of exosomes from oligodendrocytes to microglia by macropinocytosis (2011, background): “Introduction A crucial step in the induction of an autoimmune response against myelin as occurs in multiple sclerosis (MS) is the transfer of autoantigens to accessory cells (Sospedra and Martin, 2005; Steinman, 2001; Weiner, 2004).”
A crucial role for interleukin (IL)-1 in the induction of IL-17–producing T cells that mediate autoimmune encephalomyelitis (2006, background): “MS and the mouse model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), are chronic infl ammatory diseases of the central nervous system (1), which until recently were assumed to be mediated by Th1 cells (2).”
Safety and Immunological Effects of Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (2010, methodology): “The use of bone marrow–derived stem cells offers several practical advantages: (1) MSCs can be obtained readily and safely from adult bone marrow, even from patients with advanced disease; (2) MSCs, which are normally present in small concentrations in the bone marrow compartment, can be enriched an”