Gene Flow from Genetically Modified Rice and Its Environmental Consequences

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Weedy rice in sustainable rice production. A review (2017, background): “…rice problems, but the emergence of herbicide-resistance among the weeds generated more severe issues by making weeds more competitive (Bhatia and Mitra 2003; Lu and Snow 2005), and climate change is predicted to worsen weed management in rice cropping (Rodenburg et al. 2010; Ziska et al. 2012).”
Introgression of crop alleles into wild or weedy populations (2013, background): “These taxa are also self-compatible but often have somewhat higher outcrossing rates than cultivated rice (Andersson & de Vicente 2010, Lu & Snow 2005).”
An overview of general features of risk assessments of genetically modified crops (2008, background): “For many commercially grown GM crops, the question is not whether transgenic plants will outcross, because in many cases they will; it is whether the consequence of the resulting transgene flow will have an adverse environmental effect, which is a key point in the risk assessment ( Lu and Snow 2005 ”
Integration of Insect-Resistant Genetically Modified Crops within IPM Programs (2008, background): “In the case of Bt rice, which has not yet been commercialized, the potential is high that transgenes will outcross to closely related wild rice species, as well as to non-transgenic rice varieties and weedy rice (Lu and Snow, 2005).”