Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present

By C. Spigner. 2007

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“Geography of Opportunity”: Poverty, Place, and Educational Outcomes (2008, background): “Nor is it the goal to discuss the inappropriate actions by some individuals and institutions in the name of science (E. Black, 2003; Washington, 2006).”
More than Tuskegee: Understanding Mistrust about Research Participation (2010, unknown): “40 It is fair to ask whether mistreatment of African Americans that has occurred more recently than the Tuskegee syphilis study is exacerbating mistrust today.”
Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites (2016, background): “Other physicians believed that blacks could tolerate surgical operations with little, if any, pain at all (22, 25).”
EMBRacing Racial Stress and Trauma: Preliminary Feasibility and Coping Responses of a Racial Socialization Intervention (2018, background): “Furthermore, medical services and clinical programs have a history of racial misconduct which has led to skepticism among African Americans regarding the use of therapeutic services (Thornicroft, 2008; Washington, 2006).”
Systemic racism and U.S. health care. (2014, methodology): “In 1945, white doctors, working with the Atomic Energy Commission, injected plutonium into patients of color without consent to observe effects of radiation, without follow-up care (Washington, 2006; Welsome, 1999).”