Subtle, Pervasive, Harmful: Racist and Sexist Remarks in Public as Hate Speech

By L. Nielsen. 2002

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Latent Hatred: A Benchmark for Understanding Implicit Hate Speech (2021, background): “Inferiority Language implies one group or individual is inferior to another (Nielsen, 2002), and it can include dehumanization (denial of a person’s humanity), and toxiﬁcation (language that compares the target with disease, insects, animals), both of which are early warning signs of genocide…”
Empathy, Ways of Knowing, and Interdependence as Mediators of Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech (2003, background): “The actual harm has been well documented (e.g., Ehrlich et al., 1995; Nielson, 2002).”
Lay Theories About White Racists: What Constitutes Racism (and What Doesn't) (2006, background): “That participants provided such responses to an open-ended question about racism demonstrates that determinations of racial bias depend on more than just observable acts; these are judgments that often involve subjective inferences drawn about intent and motivation (Khan & Lambert, 2001; Nielsen, 20”