Fluoroquinolone resistance: mechanisms, impact on bacteria, and role in evolutionary success.

By Liam S Redgrave, S. B. Sutton, M. Webber, L. Piddock. Trends in Microbiology, 2014

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Antibiotics in the aquatic environments: A review of the European scenario. (2016, background): “The metabolization level differs among quinolones (Wolfson and Hooper, 1989; Fitton, 1992; Aminimanizani et al., 2001; Redgrave et al., 2014).”
Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli (2018, background): “Most mutations were found within the quinolone resistance-determining region, which is between Ala67 and Gln107 in GyrA, and most frequently mutations occur at codons 83 and 87 (83).”
Klebsiella pneumoniae: a major worldwide source and shuttle for antibiotic resistance (2017, background): “Klebsiella pneumoniae resistome combines all the resistance mechanisms known for quinolone resistance in gram-negative bacteria (Redgrave et al. 2014), in- cluding target-site gene mutations, increased production of MDR efflux pumps, modifying enzymes and/or target protection proteins.”
An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria (2018, background): “These mutations cause changes in the structure of gyrase and topoisomerase which decrease or eliminate the ability of the drug to bind to these components [48,49].”