Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas

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Learning Optimal and Fair Decision Trees for Non-Discriminative Decision-Making (2019, background): “In the literature, there have been a lot of reports of algorithms resulting in unfair treatment, e.g., in racial proﬁling and redlining (Squires 2003), mortgage discrimination (LaCour-Little 1999), personnel selection (Stoll, Raphael, and Holzer 2004), and employment (Kuhn 1990).”
Integrating induction and deduction for finding evidence of discrimination (2009, background): “From the research side, the literature in economics and social sciences has given evidence of unfair treatment in racial profiling and redlining in Calem et al. (2004), Squires (2003) ; mortgage lending in LaCour-Little (1999); consumer market in Riach and Rich (2002), Yinger (1998); credit and hou”
Using sensitive personal data may be necessary for avoiding discrimination in data-driven decision models (2016, background): “However, this may leave room for indirect discrimination, due to the redlining effect (Squires 2003; Hillier 2003), which may happen when some legitimate variables are correlated with sensitive characteristics, and thus may act as a proxy for the sensitive characteristics, e.g., a zip code may…”