On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae

By F. Zwicky. 1937

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Gravitational lensing analysis of the Kilo-Degree Survey (2015, background): “They provided the first evidence for dark matter as mass discrepancies in galaxies (e.g. Bosma 1978; Rubin, Thonnard & Ford 1978; Faber & Gallagher 1979; Fabricant, Lecar & Gorenstein 1980; van Albada et al. 1985; Buote & Canizares 1994) and clusters (Zwicky 1937).”
General Relativity and Cosmology: Unsolved Questions and Future Directions (2016, background): “In 1937, Zwicky made the bold assertion that galaxies would be unbound without some form of invisible matter [230].”
Cosmology and Fundamental Physics with the Euclid Satellite (2012, background): “Back in the 1930s, it was noticed that the Coma cluster seemed to contain much more mass than what could be inferred from visible galaxies [1293, 1294], and a few years later, it became clear that the Andromeda galaxy M31 rotates anomalously fast at large radii, as if most of its mass resides in its”
The clustering of galaxies in the SDSS-III Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey: Testing gravity with redshift-space distortions using the power spectrum multipoles (2013, background): “…problem is that the motions of galaxies and galaxy clusters cannot be explained by GR and baryonic matter alone, but require the introduction of a new form of matter, socalled dark matter (Zwicky 1937; Kahn & Woltjer 1959; Freeman 1970; Rubin & Ford 1970), which nobody has yet observed directly.”
A MaxBCG Catalog of 13,823 Galaxy Clusters from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (2007, background): “The early 20th century saw the first explorations of their physical properties, including the discovery of dark matter in Zwicky’s study of Coma (Zwicky 1933, 1937).”
CIRS: Cluster Infall Regions in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. I. Infall Patterns and Mass Profiles (2006, methodology): “Zwicky (1933, 1937) first used the virial theorem to estimate the mass of the Coma cluster.”
Revisiting constraints on asteroid-mass primordial black holes as dark matter candidates (2019, background): “26 of the Universe’s total energy density is made of dark matter (DM) [1], whose nature remains enigmatic even though evidence for its existence was first reported over 80 years ago [2].”
Mirror particles and mirror matter: 50 years of speculation and searching (2006, background): “ter. In [46] the muonic photon was considered and the transitions between it and ordinary photon through a muonic loop. 5We did not know the pioneering articles on dark matter by Oort [40] and Zwicky [41, 42]. 6 This gives a coupling ǫF αβF′ αβ , where F is our ﬁeld. F′ – the new one, while ǫ is a d”
Percolation Galaxy Groups and Clusters in the SDSS Redshift Survey: Identification, Catalogs, and the Multiplicity Function (2006, background): “Zwicky (1937) pioneered the study of clusters as dynamical objects by using imaging and spectroscopy of the Coma cluster to estimate its mass.”
Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): the input catalogue and star–galaxy separation (2009, background): “…1978; de Lapparent et al. 1988; Norberg et al. 2002b; Zehavi et al. 2005) and the velocity dispersion of galaxies in groups and clusters can be used to infer dark-matter halo masses (Zwicky 1937; Huchra & Geller 1982; Moore et al. 1993; Carlberg et al. 1996; Eke et al. 2004; Berlind et al. 2006).”
Galaxy Clustering in Early Sloan Digital Sky Survey Redshift Data (2002, background): “…but theoretical models of galaxy formation, the well-known dependence of observed galaxy clustering on morphological type (e.g., Hubble 1936; Zwicky 1937; Abell 1958; Davis & Geller 1976; Dressler 1980; Guzzo et al. 1997), and more recent evidence for dependence of clustering on luminosity…”
Search for gamma-ray spectral lines with the Fermi Large Area Telescope and dark matter implications (2013, unknown): “1) of the Coma Cluster to be α ∼ 500, which is 2 orders of magnitude higher than expected if the mass predominantly came from stars [4].”
Colloquium: Annual modulation of dark matter (2013, background): “…longest outstanding problem in all of modern physics, stemming back to observations in 1933 by Fritz Zwicky; he proposed the existence of ‘‘dunkle materie’’ (German for ‘‘dark matter’’) as a source of gravitational potential to explain rapid motions of galaxies in the Coma Cluster (Zwicky, 1937).”
Formation of Galaxy Clusters (2012, methodology): “…galaxy velociti s in regions of clusters made by Hubble & Humason (1931) and assumption of the virial equilibrium of galaxy motions were used to show that the total gravitating clustermasses for the Coma (Zwicky 1933, and see also Zwicky 1937) and Virgo clusters (Smith 1936) were enormous as well.”