Reality as the leading cause of stress: rethinking the impact of chronic stress in nature

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Glucocorticoid-Mediated Phenotypes in Vertebrates : Multilevel Variation and Evolution (2016, background): “In the blood, GC hormones likely are bound to large carrier proteins (corticosteroidbinding globulins, CBGs), although the precise role of CBGs in the functioning of GCs is still under debate (Breuner, Delehanty, & Boonstra, 2013; Schoech, Romero, Moore, & Bonier, 2013; see also Section 4.2).”
Challenges and science-based implications for modern management and conservation of European ungulate populations (2017, background): “Prey species have evolved behavioural and physiological adaptations to the risks associated with predators (Creel et al. 2007; Boonstra 2013; Kuijper et al. 2014; Wikenros et al. 2015).”
Stress Indicators in Fish (2016, background): “Although indicators may imply a chronically stressed state (ie, allostatic overload, McEwen and Wingfield, 2003), the responses may be adaptive (Boonstra, 2013b).”
Diel predator activity drives a dynamic landscape of fear (2017, unknown): “S2; Theuerkauf 2009) suggests a degree of predictability in wolf predation risk that may explain why wolves have no effect on elk reproduction via chronic stress (Creel et al. 2009, Boonstra 2013).”
Do wild ungulates experience higher stress with humans than with large carnivores? (2018, background): “2015) and physiological adaptations of prey animals to the risk of predation, allowing reduction of costs potentially incurred by chronic stress (Boonstra 2013).”