On the use of non‐invasive hormone research in uncontrolled, natural environments: the problem with sex, diet, metabolic rate and the individual

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Reality as the leading cause of stress: rethinking the impact of chronic stress in nature (2013, background): “…possible that indeed plasma cortisol levels were higher in the elk moving into the forests, but not in faeces, because of changes in fibre content and gut passage rates in elk from the two habitats (see Goymann 2012 for a discussion of the confounding effects of diet on faecal metabolite levels).”
Do wild ungulates experience higher stress with humans than with large carnivores? (2018, background): “According to a review by Goymann (2012), a number of confounding factors, such as sex, diet, metabolic rate, pregnancy, ambient temperature, or bacterial degradation, are likely to influence the composition and concentration of hormone metabolites.”
What are you actually measuring? A review of techniques that integrate the stress response on distinct time‐scales (2020, background): “These metabolites can be recognized by common assay antibodies, however, there are several key technical concerns that are crucial for new investigators to address (reviewed in Goymann, 2012; Palme, 2019).”