Pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

By W. Macnee. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, 2005

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Cellular mechanisms of cadmium-induced toxicity: a review (2014, background): “The universal antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2 has been recently implicated in broad range of responses involved in both the initiation and progression of lung injuries caused by smoking (Tuder and Petrache 2012).”
Cancer Progress and Priorities: Lung Cancer (2019, background): “Established and putative risk lung cancer risk factors Risk factor Magnitude of association Tobacco smoking 20-fold increased risk vs. never smoker Secondhand smoke 25% to 28% increased risk vs. never smoker Electronic cigarettes Presently unknown Other tobacco use (cigars, pipes, water pipes) 1.9- ”