The role of victim characteristics in the disposition of murder cases

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White female victims and death penalty disparity research (2004, background): “In their examination of sentencing outcomes in homicide cases, Baumer et al. (2000) explore the effects of victim conduct and victim demographic characteristics.”
A Multilevel Analysis of the Vulnerability, Disorder, and Social Integration Models of Fear of Crime (2008, background): “The failure to model this type of nonindependence can result in estimated standard errors that are biased downward; consequently, conclusions regarding the statistical and substantive importance of either individual- or city-level factors may be misleading ( Baumer, Messner, & Felson, 2000; DiPrete”
Reassessing and Redirecting Research on Race and Sentencing (2013, background): “…generation of scholars delved deeper into the various ways in which “race” might shape sentencing (e.g. Bushway & Piehl, 2001; Johnson, 2006; King et al., 2010; Ulmer & Johnson, 2004), especially across multiple stages of the criminal justice process (e.g. Baumer et al., 2000; Wooldredge, 2012).”