Continuous adjoint approach to the Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model for incompressible flows

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Large scale three-dimensional topology optimisation of heat sinks cooled by natural convection (2015, background): “However, this cannot be guaranteed in general and it is therefore best to ensure consistency, as also highlighted by the similar issue of frozen turbulence [29].”
Density based topology optimization of turbulent flow heat transfer systems (2018, methodology): “In [39] a continuous adjoint formulation is presented based on the SpalartAllmaras (SA) turbulence model [31].”
Three-Dimensional Large-Scale Aerodynamic Shape Optimization Based on Shape Calculus (2013, background): “Although these difficulties can easily be circumvented by considering a frozen the eddy viscosity, there are also reports of successful uses of analytically adjointed turbulencemodels [40].”
Topology Optimization of Turbulent Flows (2018, methodology): “Following the derivation of a continuous adjoint formulation for the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model [16], recent work has demonstrated a topology optimization framework in [17].”