The Behavioral Ecology of Disturbance Responses

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The ecological impact of humans and dogs on wildlife in protected areas in eastern North America (2016, background): “…trade-off between avoiding a perceived risk and other fitness-enhancing activities, like feeding and finding a mate, disturbances by recreationalists can reduce animal fitness by disrupting optimal feeding, parental care, or mate choice (Beale, 2007; Beale and Monaghan, 2004; Frid and Dill, 2002).”