Protectionism Indices for Non-Tariff Measures: An Application to Maximum Residue Levels

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Disentangling Demand-Enhancing and Trade-Cost Effects of Maximum Residue Regulations (2014, unknown): “A few developing countries such as Sri Lanka use lenient MRLs (Li and Beghin, 2012b).”
Non-Tariff Measures and Standards in Trade and Global Value Chains (2015, background): “The latter approach goes beyond simple counts of NTMs and looks at stringency either in deviation from international standards (Li and Beghin, 2014), or from another reference value such as the highest value (Liu and Yue, 2013) to gauge unusual stringency if not protectionism.”
The Effects of Non‐tariff Measures on Agri‐food Trade: A Review and Meta‐analysis of Empirical Evidence (2018, unknown): “From consumers’ perspective, NTMs are socially desirable and provide higher social well-being: by reducing asymmetric information and/or externalities, NTMs enhance consumers’ trust, reduce transaction costs and increase consumers’ demand (Xiong and Beghin, 2014).”
The Effect of Product Standards on Agricultural Exports (2013, unknown): “However, as shown in the next section, CODEX only regulates a limited number of product-pesticides pairs compared to individual countries, thus Li and Beghin (2014) miss an important portion of the heterogeneity in regulations.”