THE ANDES: A GEOLOGICAL OVERVIEW FROM A BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

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Tropical and Temperate: Evolutionary History of Páramo Flora (2011, background): “…the Colombian Eastern Cordillera along with the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and some parts of the Central Cordillera are of non-volcanic origin, whereas the Colombian Western and Central Cordilleras and most of the Ecuadorian Andes are built of volcanic rocks (Clapperton, 1993; Graham, 2009).”
The role of land bridges, ancient environments, and migrations in the assembly of the North American flora (2018, background): “Together with rise of about the highest half the modern elevation of the Central and Northern Andes after ca. 10 Ma, creating an added rain shadow effect in the upper valleys and eastern slopes, there resulted the extensive Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru (Gregory-Wodzicki et al., 1998; Graham et a”
Neotropical diversification seen through glassfrogs (2014, background): “40 Ma, a biologically important event providing rising uplands where coastal swamps had been (Graham, 2009).”
Island biogeography of tropical alpine floras (2014, background): “In contrast, the equatorial Andes are a structural complex of mountain ranges – cordilleras – topped by isolated peaks and ridges rising as much as 2000 m above the surrounding land (Kroonenberg et al., 1990; Clapperton, 1993; Graham, 2009; Hoorn et al., 2010).”