Environmental Regulations, Outward FDI and Heterogeneous Firms: Are Countries Used as Pollution Havens?

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The Impacts of Environmental Regulations on Competitiveness (2017, background): “Manderson and Kneller (2012) use UK firm-level data to explicitly account for heterogeneous firm behavior, and also find no evidence that firms with high environmental compliance costs are more likely to establish foreign subsidiaries than those with low environmental compliance costs.”
How does Foreign Direct Investment Affect Pollution? Toward a Better Understanding of the Direct and Conditional Effects (2015, unknown): “In the case of Argentina, Albornoz et al. (2009) find that (i) foreign firms are more likely to implement environmental management systems than local firms, (ii) local firms in sectors supplying MNCs and/or in regular contact with their clients are more likely to adopt environmental management syste”
The emission cost of international sourcing: using structural decomposition analysis to calculate the contribution of international sourcing to CO2-emission growth (2016, background): “In line with empirical findings for the PHH, there is little evidence that ‘strong’ carbon leakage is actually significant (Peters, 2010).”
Foreign Direct Investment and the Environment (2017, background): “Finally, turning to the United Kingdom, Manderson & Kneller (48) test whether industry-level environmental compliance costs have influenced firms’ foreign investment decisions.”