Socioeconomic Inequality and the Developing Brain: Spotlight on Language and Executive Function

By Emily C. Merz, Cynthia A. Wiltshire, Kimberly G Noble. Child Development Perspectives, 2018

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Robust evidence of the deleterious effects of poverty on children’s academic achievement has generated considerable interest in the neural mechanisms underlying these associations. In studies of specific neurocognitive skills, researchers have found pronounced socioeconomic disparities in children’s language and executive function (EF) skills. In this article, we review research linking socioeconomic factors (e.g., family income, parental education) with children’s brain structure and function, focusing on the neural systems involved in language and EF. Then, we cover the potential mediators of these associations, developmental timing, and strategies for prevention and intervention. To complement research at the behavioral level, we conclude with recommendations for integrating measures of the developing brain into this ongoing work. KEYWORDS—socioeconomic status; brain structure; brain function; language; executive function Nearly 16 million American children live below the poverty line (Semega, Fontenot, & Kollar, 2017), and socioeconomic disparities in children’s educational outcomes have been well documented (Sirin, 2005). Differences in school-readiness skills emerge in early childhood, preceding differences in academic achievement that tend to widen over time. Empirical evidence suggests that socioeconomic disadvantage may hinder cognitive development and prevent children from reaching their educational potential (Duncan, Magnuson, & Votruba-Drzal, 2017). Identifying ways to reduce this socioeconomic status (SES)achievement gap is crucial to improving the academic trajectories of many children in the United States and globally. Recent research has shed light on correlations between SES (family income, parental educational attainment, parental occupational prestige) and the developing brain, including the neural mechanisms underlying disparities in academic achievement, with the goal of identifying targets for effective prevention and intervention strategies. Initial investigations examined associations between socioeconomic background and children’s performance on batteries of neurocognitive tasks. These studies revealed variation in the magnitude of associations across tasks, with stronger associations for language and executive function (EF) than for other neurocognitive skills (Noble, McCandliss, & Farah, 2007; Noble, Norman, & Farah, 2005). In line with these results, evidence points to large socioeconomic differences in language comprehension and production (e.g., expressive and receptive vocabulary, grammar, phonological awareness), along with moderate to large differences in EF skills, including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Lawson, Hook, & Farah, 2017; Pace, Luo, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2017). In this article, we review studies examining associations between family SES and children’s brain structure and function, emphasizing the neural regions that support language and EF. Then, we address the proximal factors through which SES may affect language and EF development, the developmental timing of socioeconomic disparities in language and EF, and programs and policies that may mitigate the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on language and EF. Because few studies have tackled these latter questions with regard to the brain, we summarize evidence from behavioral studies of language and EF, and use this research to suggest directions for ongoing work. Emily C. Merz, Cynthia A. Wiltshire, and Kimberly G. Noble, Teachers College, Columbia University. The research reported in this article was made possible by the many families, over the many studies reviewed, who contributed their time and effort to promote a deeper understanding of brain development in the context of varying environmental experiences. This work was also made possible by generous funding from Teachers College, Columbia University and the Russell Sage Foundation. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kimberly G. Noble, Department of Biobehavioral Sciences, Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027; e-mail: kgn2106@tc.columbia.edu. © 2018 Society for Research in Child Development DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12305 Volume 13, Number 1, 2019, Pages 15–20 CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

Subfields: Developmental and Educational Psychology, Education

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