The quantum Hall effect as an electrical resistance standard

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Roadmap on topological photonics (2022, background): “Taking a broader view, the physics of topological phases has, despite its elegance and multiple decades of research, found scant applications to date beyond metrology [43]; photonics may very well be the setting in which these concepts are first turned into practical technologies.”
Experimental Observation of the Quantum Anomalous Hall Effect in a Magnetic Topological Insulator (2013, methodology): “s at first rapid, resulting from the freezing of the thermal activation mechanism, and then becomes much slower when the temperature is below 1 K. It can be attributed to variable range hopping (VRH) (24), but its exact mechanism remains unknown. Similar to the QHE, zero field xx is expected to dec”
Single-electron current sources: towards a refined definition of ampere (2012, methodology): “Quantum Hall standards based on Si MOSFET or GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures were taken to routine use quickly during the 1980s, see, e.g., Jeckelmann and Jeanneret (2001); Poirier and Schopfer (2009); Weis and von Klitzing (2011) and Issue 4 of C. R. Physique, vol. 369 (2011) for reviews.”
Colloquium : Quantum anomalous Hall effect (2022, background): “Note that the uncertainties of the order of 0.1 ppm ∼ 10 ppb still do not reach the requirements for a quantum resistance standard, which requires quantization with uncertainty on the order of 1 ppb (Jeckelmann and Jeanneret, 2001; Poirier and Schopfer, 2009).”