Locomotor Primitives in Newborn Babies and Their Development

By N. Dominici, Yuri P. Ivanenko, Germana Cappellini, Andrea d'Avella, V. Mondì, M. Cicchese, A. Fabiano, Tiziana Silei, A. Di Paolo, Carlo Giannini and 2 more. Science, 2011

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Twitching in Sensorimotor Development from Sleeping Rats to Robots (2013, background): “Some believe that complex behaviors are built from ‘motor primitives’: endowed units of behavior, hardwired in the spinal cord, that arise fully formed without the need for experience [2].”
Muscle synergy patterns as physiological markers of motor cortical damage (2012, methodology): “Other investigators have used factorization analysis to gain a new understanding of spinal cord functions (5–8), of postural control (9, 10), and of motor development (11, 12).”
Patterned control of human locomotion (2012, background): “In fact, these two views can be reconciled (Giszter et al. 2010), as demonstrated by a recent study on different developmental stages of the basic activation patterns of locomotion (Dominici et al. 2011).”
The neural origin of muscle synergies (2013, background): “On the other hand, the number of leg muscle synergies for human locomotion, including running and walking at different speeds, was estimated to be between four and five (Ivanenko et al., 2004; Cappellini et al., 2006; Dominici et al., 2011).”
Learning and Transfer of Modulated Locomotor Controllers (2016, background): “A human baby, when lifted so that its feet just graze the ground, will step in a cyclical walking motion [20, 7].”