Hydrothermal model for predicting fire-induced spalling in concrete structural systems

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Properties of Concrete at Elevated Temperatures (2014, background): “In addition to thermal, mechanical, and deformation properties, another property that has a significant influence on the fire performance of a concrete structural member is spalling [33].”
Evaluation of pore structures and cracking in cement paste exposed to elevated temperatures by X-ray computed tomography (2013, background): “The significance of these features in assessments of heated concrete has led engineers to evaluate changes in themechanical properties [3–10], color [11–14], evolution of cracking [10,15–21], and spalling [10,22–29] of fire-damaged concrete in relation to various temperatures, and to develop methods”