Gender stereotypes are reflected in the distributional structure of 25 languages

By M. Lewis, Gary Lupyan. 2019

137 citations recorded by the source corpus.

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Ethical and social risks of harm from Language Models (2021, background): “For instance, gender norms and stereotypes are embedded in language (Lewis and Lupyan, 2020; Maass and Arcuri, 1992).”
Based on billions of words on the internet, people = men (2022, background): “Formally in the present case, let X represent our set of traits stereotypical of men and Y represent our set of traits stereotypical of women (called target words by the original authors; 23 ).”
Gender Stereotypes in Natural Language: Word Embeddings Show Robust Consistency Across Child and Adult Language Corpora of More Than 65 Million Words (2021, unknown): “…embed-dings have begun to be implemented more widely in psychology and adjacent fields and have been shown to be valid and reliable methods for capturing psychological and social phenomena (Caliskan et al., 2017; DeFranza et al., 2020; Garg et al., 2018; Kurdi et al., 2019; Lewis & Lupyan, 2020).”
Gender Bias in Machine Translation (2021, result): “, 1998) attested across cultures (Lewis and Lupyan, 2020), and it can be easily detected in MT across multiple language directions with consistent results.”