Anisotropic spread of hemlock woolly adelgid in the eastern United States

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A foundation tree at the precipice: Tsuga canadensis health after the arrival of Adelges tsugae in central New England (2012, background): “Since it entered Richmond, VA in the early 1950s (Souto et al. 1996), HWA has spread via wind, birds, deer and humans rapidly to the north and recently to the more scattered stands in the south (McClure 1990, Morin et al. 2009).”
Ecology of forest insect invasions (2017, background): “Rapid spread of this organism did not commence until the 1970s, prior to which it had slowly been spreading through a region of low host density (Morin et al. 2009).”
Hemlock woolly adelgid in the southern Appalachians: Control strategies, ecological impacts, and potential management responses (2013, background): “…2008) Rapid mortality and rates of spread are hypothesized to be related to warm winters that can sustain high HWA populations (Paradis et al., 2008; Morin et al., 2009; Trotter and Shields, 2009), as temperatures required to limit HWA populations (i.e., < 25 C) are rarely experienced in the…”
Benefits of invasion prevention: Effect of time lags, spread rates, and damage persistence (2015, methodology): “We modeled spread using records of historical spread (Morin et al., 2009) and projected continued spread of 12.5 km/year within climatically suitable areas.”