Automatic detection of hate speech in text: an overview of the topic and dataset annotation with hierarchical classes

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Anticipating Safety Issues in E2E Conversational AI: Framework and Tooling (2021, background): “For offensive language detection, interannotator agreement (IAA) on human labeling tasks is typically low (Fortuna, 2017; Wulczyn et al., 2017).”
Bot-Adversarial Dialogue for Safe Conversational Agents (2021, positive): “This is also in line with IAA results in other crowdsourced studies of offensive language (Fortuna, 2017).”
SafetyKit: First Aid for Measuring Safety in Open-domain Conversational Systems (2022, background): “For offensive language detection, inter-annotator agreement (IAA) on human labeling tasks is typically low (Fortuna, 2017; Wulczyn et al., 2017).”
Developing an online hate classifier for multiple social media platforms (2020, methodology): “Fortunately, there are exceptions.”
Benchmarking Aggression Identification in Social Media (2018, background): “, 2017), hate speech (Pinkesh Badjatiya and Varma, 2017; Burnap and Williams, 2014; Davidson et al., 2017; Vigna et al., 2017; Djuric et al., 2015; Fortana, 2017; Gitari et al., 2015; Malmasi and Zampieri, 2018; Waseem and Hovy, 2016; Schmidt and Wiegand, 2017), radicalization (Agarwal and Sureka, 2”