WOLF–BISON INTERACTIONS IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

By Douglas W. Smith, L. Mech, M. Meagher, W. Clark, R. Jaffe, Michael K. Phillips, J. A. Mack. 2000

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Foraging in the ‘landscape of fear’ and its implications for habitat use and diet quality of elk Cervus elaphus and bison Bison bison (2005, background): “Additionally, wolves hunt primarily by chasing their prey so that they can attack vulnerable hind quarters, and their prey commonly flee into heavy cover for protection (Mech 1966, Smith et al. 2000, Mech et al. 2001).”
The influence of conspecifics and predation risk on the vigilance of elk (Cervus elaphus) in Yellowstone National Park (2006, background): “In the spring, newborn calves are prey for predators including wolves, grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), and coyotes (Canis latrans) (Gunther and Renkin 1990; Gese and Grothe 1995) and are the most common prey of wolves ( Smith et al. 2000 ).”
Predation risk, gender and the group size effect: does elk vigilance depend upon the behaviour of conspecifics? (2003, background): “The wolves had an immediate impact on the behaviour and survivorship of elk, moose, Alces alces, and bison, Bison bison ( Smith et al. 2000a; Berger et al. 2001; Laundre ´ et al. 2001; Mech et al. 2001).”
Nonlinear effects of group size on the success of wolves hunting elk (2012, background): “For example, wolves might cooperate more consistently when hunting bison—which are larger and more formidable than elk (Smith et al. 2000; MacNulty et al. 2007)—if solo hunting success is sufficiently low to leave ample scope for improvement through cooperation (Packer and Ruttan 1988).”