Mechanism for Salt Scaling

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Experimental study of the material and bond properties of frost-damaged concrete (2011, background): “Another type of frost damage, known as surface scaling, is caused by mechanisms involving the differing thermal expansion of ice and concrete [3].”
Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on the mechanical behavior of geopolymer concrete and Portland cement concrete containing micro-encapsulated phase change materials (2019, background): “The volume of water increases by about 9% when it freezes [39], which generates a hydraulic pressure within the sample.”
De-icing Salt Scaling Resistance of Mechanically Loaded Engineered Cementitious Composites (2007, background): “In addition to reducing the serviceability of the structure, surface scaling is known to favor the ingress of deleterious chemicals into the interior of the concrete [2] which consequently increases the risk of deterioration by other phenomena such as corrosion of reinforcing steel.”