Bias in the case – crossover design: implications for studies of air pollution

By Thomas Lumley, D. Levy. 2000

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Health Effects of Air Pollution: A Statistical Review (2003, methodology): “Time-stratified sampling (Lumley & Levy, 2000) dividesa priori the time period into fixed strata and uses the remaining days in a stratum as referents for a case that falls in that stratum.”
Short term exposure to air pollution and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis (2015, background): “It assumes that short term time varying risk factors (such as smoking) are constant within reference periods 4 16 17 and therefore do not confound rapidly fluctuating parameters such as concentrations of air pollution and other meteorological parameters.”
Case–Crossover Analyses of Air Pollution Exposure Data: Referent Selection Strategies and Their Implications for Bias (2005, background): “For most of the commonly used strategies (eg, symmetric bidirectional), the estimating equations have overlap bias.(22,41) In the next section, we identify the referent schemes that are subject to overlap bias.”
Tutorial in biostatistics: the self‐controlled case series method (2006, methodology): “Case series analyses of deaths present two challenges: exposures must usually precede death (there are some exceptions, such as environmental exposures [17]), and the observation period is censored.”