Large-scale failure modes of dielectric elastomer actuators

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Modeling Viscoelastic Dielectrics (2011, background): “It may seem peculiar to talk about the stability of a nonequilibrium state, but phenomena similar to the instability of an equilibrium state have been observed experimentally in viscoelastic materials (Plante and Dubowsky, 2006).”
From boots to buoys: promises and challenges of dielectric elastomer energy harvesting (2011, background): “Plante and Dubowsky [32] studied failures in acrylic materials and identified factors to predict performance limitations.”
Dielectric Elastomer Actuator for Soft Robotics Applications and Challenges (2020, background): “Pre-strain can improve breakdown strength [5] and mechanical stability but can also cause a decrease in the DE constant [6].”
Instabilities in multilayered soft dielectrics (2011, background): “…by coexistent states, electric breakdown) have been explore both analytically (Zhao and Suo, 2007; Zhao et al., 2007; Moscardo et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2009) and experimentally (Plante and Dubowsky, 2006), providing also design guidelines to prevent potential failures under operating conditions.”
Electromechanical coupling in dielectric elastomer actuators (2007, background): “Several researchers [3,5,8,17,18], dopted a deformation independent value of about 4.”