Artificial muscle technology: physical principles and naval prospects

By John D. W. Madden, N. Vandesteeg, P. Anquetil, Peter G. Madden, A. Takshi, Rachel Z. Pytel, S. Lafontaine, P. Wieringa, Ian W. Hunter. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 2004

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Flexoelectricity in soft materials and biological membranes (2014, background): “: þ1 713 743 4502; et al., 2007; Eliseev et al., 2009, 2011; Maranganti and Sharma, 2009; Majdoub et al., 2008a,b, 2009a,b; Sharma et al., 2010, 2012; Gharbi et al., 2011; Kalinin and Meunier, 2008; Dumitrica et al., 2002).”
Flexible and stretchable electrodes for dielectric elastomer actuators (2012, neutral): “Much research effort has been invested in the selection and optimization of the elastomers used as dielectric [1,4,6–10], as well as on applications of DEAs [11].”
Electrochemical actuation in chitosan/polyaniline microfibers for artificial muscles fabricated using an in situ polymerization (2008, background): “Materials that can be used as artificial uscles must respond to an electric field, pH, temperature, onic strength, and/or light with a corresponding change in heir shape and size [1].”
Soft Robotics: A Perspective—Current Trends and Prospects for the Future (2014, neutral): “In addition to pneumatic air muscles, current technologies include dielectric elastomer actuators, ionic polymer metal composites (IPMC), shape-memory alloys and polymers, and liquid-crystal elastomers.(15) Along with these existing classes of actuators, future artificial muscles will not only power”