Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose Nanofibers from Two Commercial Hardwood and Softwood Pulps

By Wolfgang Stelte, A. Sanadi. 2009

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Cellulose-Based Bio- and Nanocomposites: A Review (2011, background): “Figure 3: Scanning electron micrographs of hard- and softwood cellulose fibers, before and after 10 passes through the homogenizer [35].”
Mechanical and thermal properties of waterborne epoxy composites containing cellulose nanocrystals (2013, background): “CNCs are isolated from bulk cellulose by mechanical or chemical treatment to separate amorphous from crystalline regions, including acid hydrolysis [1e3], oxidation (for example, the TEMPO-mediated oxidation process) [4], homogenization [5,6], and grinding [7].”
State of the Art Manufacturing and Engineering of Nanocellulose: A Review of Available Data and Industrial Applications (2013, methodology): “The most known research & development centers are located in North America (USA and Canada), Europe (Germany, France, Sweden, Finland, Switzerland, Norway and Austria), Japan, Israel and Argentina, Table 1 [1-11,20-27] underlines the increasing interest”
Processing of wood-based microfibrillated cellulose and nanofibrillated cellulose, and applications relating to papermaking: a review (2016, background): “Higher resolution microscopes such as the atomic force microscope (AFM) provide extensive information for the assessment of cellulose nanomaterial (Habibi et al. 2010; Stelte and Sanadi 2009; Ahola et al. 2008b).”