Robust comparison of climate models with observations using blended land air and ocean sea surface temperatures

By Kevin Cowtan, Z. Hausfather, Ed Hawkins, P. Jacobs, M. Mann, S. K. Miller, B. Steinman, Martin B. Stolpe, R. Way. 2015

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Reconciled climate response estimates from climate models and the energy budget of Earth (2016, background): “as air and water temperatures are expected to change diferently.(4,23) While some work accounted for these issues, it has not yet been included in energy-budget analyses.”
Causes of climate change over the historical record (2019, background): “This avoids, at least to some extent, introducing biases due to uneven distribution of data across the globe (e.g. limited coverage in high latitudes, Cowtan et al 2015); and also circumvents relying on assumptions made in infilled datasets.”
The ERA5 global reanalysis: Preliminary extension to 1950 (2021, background): “There are also differences because the monthly data sets provide a mix of air temperatures over land and SST, whereas the reanalyses provide air temperatures everywhere; implications of this have been discussed by Cowtan et al. (2015) for climate modelling and Simmons et al.”
Improvements in the GISTEMP Uncertainty Model (2019, methodology): “These independent LSAT and SST analyses are combined into a total (LSAT and SST) global surface temperature index from which spatially averaged global and regional time series can be computed (note this is not strictly equal to the true surface air temperature anomaly; Cowtan et al., 2015).”